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d） Humanistic theories emphasize present phenomenal reality
or future goals
e） Cognitive and self theories emphasize past and present （and
future； in the instance of goal…setting）
4。 Consciousness versus Unconsciousness
a） Trait theories pay little attention to this distinction
b） Freudian theory emphasizes unconscious processes
c） Humanistic； social…learning； and cognitive theories
emphasize conscious processes
d） Self theories are unclear
5。 Inner Disposition versus Outer Situation
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CHAPTER 14： UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY
a） Trait theories emphasize dispositional factors
b） Social…learning theories emphasize situational factors
c） All others allow interaction between person…based and
situation…based variables
B。 Theoretical Contributions to Understanding of Human Personality
1。 Trait theories provide a catalog； describing parts and structures
2。 Psychodynamic theories add a powerful engine and fuel to get the
vehicle moving
3。 Humanistic theories put the person in the driver’s seat
4。 Social…learning theories supply the steering wheel； directional signals；
and other regulation equipment
5。 Cognitive theories add reminders that the way the trip is planned；
organized； and remembered will be affected by the mental map the
driver selects for the journey
6。 Self theories remind the driver to consider the image his or her driving
ability projects to back…seat drivers and pedestrians
VIII。 Assessing Personality
A。 Objective Tests
1。 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory （MMPI）； developed
using empirical strategy； is most frequently used personality inventory
a） Items included on scales only if they clearly differentiated
between two groups
b） Each item demonstrates its validity by being answered
similarly by members within each group； but differently
between groups
c） Ten clinical scales； each differentiating a different clinical
group
d） Validity scales detect suspicious response patterns
e） Major revision over the last ten years； resulting in the MMPI…2；
added fifteen new content scales
2。 The NEO…Personality Inventory （NEO…PI）
a） Measures the five…factor model of personality。 The five
dimensions are：
（i） Neuroticism
（ii） Extraversion
（iii） Openness
（iv） Agreeableness
（v） Conscientiousness
b） A new inventory based on the five…factor model； The Big Five
Questionnaire （BFQ）； is designed to have validity across
cultures
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
B。 Projective Tests
1。 Basics
a） Projective tests have no predetermined range of responses； but
use ambiguous stimuli
b） Among the assessment devices most monly used by
psychological practitioners
c） Used more frequently outside the U。S。 than are objective tests
because they are less sensitive to language variation
2。 Specifics
a） The Rorschach test； developed by Hermann Rorschach； uses
ambiguous stimuli that are symmetrical inkblots； with
responses scored on three major features：
（i） Location or part of the card mentioned in the
response—does respondent refer to the whole
stimulus or only part of it？
（ii） Content of the response； nature of the object and
activities seen
（iii） Determinants； those aspects of the card that prompted
response
（iv） Correctly utilized； test is both reliable and permits
valid assessments about the underlying personality
b） The Thematic Apperception Test （TAT）； developed by Henry
Murray
（i） Respondents shown pictures of ambiguous scenes
and asked to generate stories about them； describing
what people are thinking and doing； what led up to
each event； and how each situation will end
（ii） Individual administering test evaluates structure and
content of stories； as well as behavior of individual
telling them； attempting to discover respondent’s
major concerns motivations； and personality
characteristics
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CHAPTER 14： UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 Have the class suppose that there was no continuity in behavior or personality and that we
faced each situation anew； without reference to prior experiences and reactions。 Discuss
with the class the changes this scenario might evoke in one’s self…concept。
2。 What might be the advantage or disadvantage to describing the personality of a
developmentally delayed child using the trait orientation？ What about use of the type
orientation？ Ask the class for a show of hands indicating how many prefer each
perspective。 Have individual class members indicate why they prefer one perspective to the
other。
3。 In what sense does our personality limit our freedom to act？ In what sense does our
personality give us greater freedom to act than a cat or dog enjoys？
4。 Discuss the five…factor model of personality。 Aside from the obvious applications in the
mental health industry； ask the class what other applications they see for this model。 Have
students expand on their perspective。
5。 Of the various approaches to personality detailed in this chapter； which do students find to
be most satisfying in a personal sense？ Is this an emotional or an intellectual choice？
Discuss the implications。
6。 We all assume somewhat different roles and personalities in different social situations。 If
you could be only one of these “people；” which would you choose？ How would other
people’s reactions to you be changed in those situations where you now displayed a new
set of characteristics？
7。 A surprisingly large percentage of college students （about 50 percent） describe themselves
as “shy。” Can such a self…imposed label be changed by the time one reaches college age？ If
so； how？ How does someone e to be “shy”？ What is the difference between being a
“shy person” and being “situationally shy”？
8。 You might want to discuss Judith Rich Harris’s book； The Nurture Assumption： Why Children
Turn Out the Way They Do； Parents Matter Less than You Think and Peers Matter More； in which
she argues that peers； not parents； play the most important role in shaping a child’s
personality。 As the text explains； there is abundant research that consistently indicates that
parents play a large； if not critical； role in shaping a child’s personality。 As the text
suggests； if parents had little or no impact； then there would be no observable birth order
effects。 Additionally； Harris ignores the fact that since children tend to grow up in
neighborhoods where many families have similar values and behavior standards； they are
surrounded by other children with fairly similar values to their own。 Children may also
self…select friends based on how similar their attitudes and interests are to their own。 While
peers clearly have some effect； especially during the middle school and high school years；
there is no evidence that the effects of peer influence override parental influences in the
long run to the degree argued by Harris。 How do students feel about this？ Do their own
experiences confirm or deny Harris’s theories？ Why or why not？
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Harry Stack Sullivan and the Interpersonal Relations Theory of
Personality
The founder of this position； Harry Stack Sullivan； was an interesting individual； and his areas of
concentration were：
。 The dynamics of personality
。 The dynamics and treatment of schizophrenia （he coined the term and concept of the
“schizophrenic mother”）
Sullivan posited his theory of personality within the context of developmental psychology； feeling
that to be the only viable avenue for his perspective。 Sullivan felt that it was “pletely
preposterous’ to assume that human behavior was determined solely by instinct； feeling instead
that human nature was so pliable and adaptable that even “the most fantastic social rules and
regulations ＇could＇ be lived up to； if they were properly inculcated in the young。” Sullivan
concluded that personality was shaped primarily by social forces； with the lengthy period of
dependence in childhood making the child particularly susceptible to the influence of others。 He
proposed an incredib