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4。 Drives and Psychosexual Development
a） Postulating a mon biological basis for behavioral patterns
observed in his patients； Freud ascribed motivational source
to psychic energy within each individual
b） Individuals presumed to have inborn instincts or drives that
were tension systems
c） Freud originally postulated two basic drives：
（i） Self…preservation； associated with the ego
（ii） Eros is related to sexual urges and preservation of the
species； and is used with the term libido to identify
source of energy for sexual urges
d） After World War I； Freud added Thanatos； the concept of the
death instinct
e） Eros operates from birth； and is evident in infants’ pleasure in
stimulation of erogenous zones； leading Freud to posit that
the physical source of sexual pleasures changed in an orderly
progression （i。e。； five stages of psychosexual development）
5。 Psychic determinism： Assumption that all mental and behavioral
reactions are determined by earlier experiences； leading to belief in
unconscious processes
a） Freud believed behavior has both manifest and latent content
（i） Manifest content of behavior refers to what one says；
does； and perceives （indicating awareness）
（ii） Latent content includes neurotic symptoms； dreams；
slips of the pens and slips of the tongue at the
unconscious level of and information…processing
6。 The Structure of Personality
a） Id： Storehouse of fundamental drives； operating irrationally
and on impulse； pushing for expression and immediate
gratification； governed by the pleasure principle
b） Superego： Storehouse of individual’s values； including moral
values； corresponds roughly to the notion of conscience
（i） The inner voice of “oughts” and “should nots”
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（ii） Includes ego ideal； the individual’s view of the kind
of person he/she should strive to bee
（iii） Often in conflict with the id
c） Ego： Reality…based aspect of the self； arbitrating conflict
between id’s impulses and superego’s demands and choosing
actions that gratify id without undesirable consequences
（i） Governed by the reality principle
（ii） When id and superego conflict； ego arranges a
promise both can live with
7。 Repression and Ego Defense
a） Repression is the psychological process that protects the
individual from experiencing extreme anxiety or guilt about
impulses； ideas； or memories that are unacceptable and / or
dangerous to express。 Ego’s most basic defense against being
overwhelmed by id and superego
b） Ego defense mechanisms are mental strategies used by the ego to
defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses that
seek expression； and the superego’s demand to deny them
c） Anxiety is an intense emotional response； triggered when
repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness。
Signals that repression is not working； and a second line…ofdefense
to relieve anxiety is required
C。 Evaluation of Freudian Theory
1。 Bases for criticism
a） Conceptually vague and not operationally defined； making
scientific evaluation of the theory difficult
b） Freudian psychoanalytic theory is “good history； but bad
science”
（i） Unreliable predictive power
（ii） Is applied retrospectively
（iii） Typically involves historical reconstruction； rather
than scientific construction of probable actions and
predictable outes
（iv） Directs focus away from current stimuli that may be
inducing and maintaining the behavior
c） Psychoanalytic theory is a developmental theory； but never
included studies of children
d） Minimizes traumatic experiences by reinterpreting memories
of them as fantasies
e） Male…as…norm model makes theory androcentric
2。 Modifications and improvements
a） Ongoing research reveals much of daily experience is shaped
by processes outside of awareness
b） Freud’s theory is the most plex； pelling； and
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prehensive view of both normal and abnormal
personality functioning； even when its predictions are wrong
3。 Like any theory； Freud’s theory must be treated as unconfirmed until it
can be confirmed； element by element
D。 Post…Freudian Theories
1。 Intellectual descendants of Freud made several changes in the
psychoanalytic view of personality
a） More emphasis on ego functions
b） Social variables viewed as playing a more significant role in
shaping of personality
c） Less emphasis on importance of libidinal energy
d） Extension of personality development beyond childhood；
including the entire life span
2。 Alfred Adler
a） Alfred Adler rejected the significance of Eros and the pleasure
principle
b） Adler believed personality structured around striving to
overe feelings of inferiority
3。 Karen Horney
a） Challenged Freud’s phallo…centric emphasis
b） Placed greater emphasis on cultural factors
c） Focused on present character structure rather than on
infantile sexuality
4。 Carl Jung expanded the conception of the unconscious to include the：
a） Collective unconscious： the fundamental psychological truths
shared by the entire human race
b） Archetype： a primitive； symbolic representation of a particular
experience or object； associated with the instinctive tendency
to feel； think about； or experience the object in a special way。
（i） Animus； the male archetype
（ii） Anima； the female archetype
（iii） Mandala； the archetype of the self
c） Jung’s view of personality as a constellation of pensating
internal forces； in dynamic balance； resulted in analytic
psychology
IV。 Humanistic Theories
A。 Humanistic approaches to personality are characterized by concern for integrity of the
individual’s personal and conscious experience and growth potential
B。 Features of Humanistic Theories Include：
1。 Some humanists believed motivation for behavior derived from the
individual’s unique tendencies； both innate and learned； to develop
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and change in a positive direction
2。 Self…actualization； a constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential；
to develop one’s own capacities and talents
a） Drive for self…actualization sometimes conflicts with need for
approval from the self and others； especially when the
individual feels certain obligations or conditions must be met
to gain approval； as in：
b） Rogers’ mandate of unconditional positive regard in child…
rearing
c） Horney’s idea that people have a “real self” that requires
favorable environment to be actualized
3。 Humanistic theories have also been described as holistic；
dispositional； phenomenological； and existential
a） Holistic： explain individuals’ separate acts in terms of their
entire personalities
b） Dispositional： focus on innate qualities within the individual
that exert a major influence over the direction behavior will
take
c） Phenomenological： emphasize the individual’s frame of
reference and subjective view of reality； rather than the frame
of an observer or a therapist
d） Existentialist： focus on higher mental processes
C。 Evaluation of Humanistic Theories
1。 Criticisms
a） Concepts are fuzzy； and difficult to explore empirically
b） Traditionally； did not focus on particular characteristics of the
individual
c） Theories were more about human nature and qualities shared
by all people； than about individual personality or the basis of
difference among individuals
d） Emphasis of the role of the self as source of experience and
action neglects environmental variables that also influence
behavior
2。 Contemporary research emphasizes psychobiography； “the systematic
use of psychological theory to transform a life into a coherent and
illuminating story”
V。Social…Learning and Cognitive Theories
A。 Introduction
1。 Learning theory orientation looks to environmental circumstances that
control behavior
2。 Personality is viewed as the sum of overt and covert responses that are
reliably elicited by the individual’s reinforcement history
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