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event in the environment； but because of our bodily responses to the event or object。 In a diagram form； the
chain of events looks like this：
PERCEPTION T BODILY CHANGES T EMOTION T BEHAVIOR
As an example of how this might look in real life； imagine meeting an angry bear in the woods：
SNARLING BEAR T INCREASED HEART RATE； T FEAR！ T FIGHT OR
BP & RESPIRATION FLIGHT！
James and Lange felt that the perception of a stimulus； such as a snarling bear； led to changes in the body。
These changes are then fed back to the brain； indicating a “changed state” and prompting a change in the
subjective experience of emotion。 James and Lange felt that the perception of changes in bodily sensations
led to emotional experience。 James and Lange would argue that you do not run because you are afraid of the
bear； but rather you are afraid because you run。
The Cannon–Bard Theory
The James–Lange model of emotional response was popular for quite some time； until W。 B。 Cannon came
along about 1930 and criticized the James–Lange model on different grounds：
1。 Cannon felt that bodily changes that were supposed to provide feedback to the brain and thus
provide “emotional quality” to experiences could be eliminated without disturbing the emotions。
He proceeded to denervate cats so that no bodily change could occur。 The cats still displayed
“normal” emotion （fear） in the presence of a barking dog。
2。 Cannon noted that bodily changes that occur during varied emotional states are nearly the same；
regardless of the emotion felt。 For example； in both fear and anger； heart rate and blood pressure
increase； eyes dilate； and hair stands erect。 Similar changes are observed in response to extreme
heat or cold。
3。 Cannon felt that changes occurring in the body； changes in the autonomic nervous system； were too
slow to provide the experience of emotion。
4。 Cannon felt that if the James–Lange theory were correct； then exercise； which increases heart rate
and leads to other bodily changes； should produce an emotional response。
Cannon believed emotion to be associated with activation of the sympathetic nervous system； which； among
other functions； prepares an organism for fight or flight by increasing heart rate； blood pressure； and other
bodily functions。 Cannon argued that control of emotion was based in the thalamus； which receives
information from various senses and that emotional response patterns were activated by the thalamus
when external sensory information was received； via activation of the sympathetic nervous system。 He felt
emotion occurred at the same time as activation of the body。 His model looks like this：
PERCEPTION T BODILY CHANGES & EMOTION T BEHAVIOR
As an example of how this might look in real life； imagine meeting an angry bear in the woods：
SNARLING BEAR T INCREASE HEART RATE & FEAR T FIGHT OR FLIGHT！
The Schachter—Singer Theory
The Cognitive–Physiological Theory of Emotion； proposed by Schachter and Singer； suggests that emotional
experience involves both cognitive attributions and physiological arousal。 This theory assumes that both
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CHAPTER 13： EMOTION； STRESS； AND HEALTH
physiological arousal and a cognitive label are necessary for the full experience of emotion。 If either
ponent is missing； the subjective state experienced would be inplete。 In some ways； this model
bines and modifies the James–Lange and Cannon–Bard theories。 Like James and Lange； this theory
proposed that bodily changes are a part of the emotional experience； and； like Cannon and Bard； it posits
that interpretation of the event is important for full experience。 However； this model goes beyond previous
theories in the position that both physiological and cognitive labeling are required for the full experience of
emotion。 This theory has been quite popular since its introduction in 1963。 Support for the theory； however；
has been modest； it has been criticized on both methodological and empirical grounds。 Attempts to replicate
Schachter’s work have been unsuccessful。 In diagram form； this theory would look like this：
PERCEPTION T BODILY CHANGES & T EMOTION T BEHAVIOR
COGNITIVE LABEL
As an example of how this might look in real life； imagine meeting an angry bear in the woods：
SNARLING BEAR T INCREASED HEART RATE； T FEAR！ T FIGHT OR FLIGHT！
ETC。 & COGNITIVE APPRAISAL
Since this model first appeared； some psychologists have suggested that the cognitive ponent alone may
be both a necessary and sufficient ponent for the generation of emotion。
The Survival Value of Emotions
Plutchik； a psychologist who has done a great deal of research on emotion； says； “The organic tradition
reminds people of their biological connection to each other； and the survival value of emotions such as guilt；
shame； pity； remorse； gratitude； and empathy。” One could claim the emotions have survival value because
they have survived in the evolutionary process。 However； social； political； and economic changes among
humans occur much more rapidly than evolutionary changes； and characteristics that were once adaptive
may cease to be adaptive as the environment changes。
The emotions that Plutchik mentions are related to altruism and cooperation。 An individual with these
emotions may be at a disadvantage in petition with an individual who does not have these emotions
and is selfish and without conscience； as ordinary people are often the victims of people with antisocial
personalities。 However； if all the members of a group or species were lacking in altruistic emotions； they
would find it difficult to form a cooperative society and might destroy each other。
Stress： Causes and Coping
Stress refers to the reaction of an individual to disturbing events in their environment。 Our reaction to stress
is fundamentally physiological； with any or all of the following manifestations：
· A heightened state of awareness
· A dry mouth
· Increased heart rate
· Shaky hands
· Increased perspiration
One thing that makes stress difficult to define； explain； diagnose； and treat is that stress is a subjective state。
What stresses you may not stress other people。 Negative or unpleasant events are more likely to be
perceived as stressful than positive events； although positive events such as childbirth can also be stressful。
Negative events cause more psychological distress and produce more physiological symptoms than do
positive events。 Uncontrollable or unpredictable events are more stressful than those that are controllable or
predictable。 Unpredictable events may be more stressful； because there is no opportunity to prepare for
coping with them。 Ambiguous events are more stressful than are clear…cut events； whether the events are
good or bad。 Ambiguous events can leave you stuck in a problem…solving stage in which you attempt to
understand what caused the event and its meaning。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Stress is a potential causal factor in illness； in that it can open the door for both physical and psychological
problems。 Some of the earlier work in this area looked at the role played in illness by Major Stressful Life
Events （MSLE）。 This research showed the impact of MSLEs using a questionnaire entitled the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale （SRRS）。 Each item on the scale has been given a certain number of points； with
higher numbers corresponding to more stressful events。 Once a respondent has pleted the scale； the
points for each item are totaled。 The higher the score on the scale； the higher the stress level。
In addition to large stressful events； psychologists have recently e to believe that daily hassles may have
a larger detrimental impact on us than previously thought。 Research suggests that these chronic stressors
are more predictive of physical and psychological illness than are the more acute stressors found on the
SRRS。
COPING WITH STRESSFUL EVENTS
According to Lazarus； coping is the process of attempting to manage demands that are viewed as taxing or
exceeding one’s resources。 It is the process of trying to manage and master stressful events。