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and environmental factors。 Depicts experiments conducted to pinpoint the areas of the brain
involved in cognitive deficits。 Contradicts the myth that memory deficits are an inevitable part of
aging。 Emphasizes that an active； purposeful old age depends on staying physically and mentally
active。 Shows research on the biological mechanisms that cause Alzheimer’s disease； and discusses
one possible solution for decreasing the debilitating effects of this disease。
On Death and Dying （1974）。 FI； 40 minutes
Dr。 Elisabeth Kubler…Ross discusses her experiences in helping the terminally ill face death without
fear。 She stresses the importance of municating with them in a way that recognizes their
feelings。 Somewhat dated； but the basic issues remain constant。
Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory （1994）。 Davidson Films
Presents Lev Vygotsky’s early childhood learning theories and demonstrates them in classrooms。
Development； according to Vygotsky； cannot be separated from its social context： it is misleading to
evaluate children only on what they acplish independently。
The Infant Mind （1992）。 Insight Media； 30 minutes
Jean Piaget’s stage theories of object permanence and sensory…motor development are explained
and challenged。 Research with newborns has revealed that infants possess a basic perception of
cause and effect； number； and object permanence and that memory skills and the capacity to form
concepts are present much earlier than formerly believed。
The Seven Ages of the Brain （1995）。 Films for the Humanities & Sciences； 58 minutes
Focuses on how a brain grows from a fertilized egg and how our brains change； even after birth；
right up to old age。 The establishment of connections between brain cells occurs not only in the
womb； but also after birth。 These connections can be modified； or even abolished； in accordance
with certain changes in the environment。 Part of the British Royal Institute Lecture series。
Aging Successfully： Psychological Aspects of Growing Old （1998）。 Davidson Films； 30 minutes
Discusses the concepts developed by the Baltes for assessing the means by which some people cope
better psychologically with old age。 Selection； optimization； and pensation are three important
coping strategies to deal with the decline in physical and some mental functions； while developing
wisdom。
plaints of a Dutiful Daughter （1995）。 Women Make Movies； 44 minutes
Shows interactions between an Alzheimer’s patient and her daughter。 The daughter discusses the
various stages of the disease； how she dealt with each and how she arrived at a positive resolution。
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
219
CHAPTER 12
Motivation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter； students should be able to：
1。 Describe the five functions of motivational concepts
2。 Explain the various sources of motivation； including instinctual； emotional； and cognitive
sources
3。 municate the difference between William James’ and Sigmund Freud’s conception on
instinctual behaviors
4。 Describe social learning theory and its relationship to internal and external sources of
attributions
5。 Identify the two major eating disorders
6。 Explain the different reproductive strategies that may be employed by males and females
7。 Describe the four phases of human sexual response for males and females
8。 Show an understanding of the concept of need for achievement and discuss how it relates
to motivation
9。 Describe the concept of locus of control and its relationship to motivation
10。 Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 Understanding Motivation
A。 Motivation is the general term for all the processes involved in starting； directing； and
maintaining physical and psychological activities
B。 Functions of Motivational Concepts
1。 To relate biology to behavior
2。 To account for behavioral variability
3。 To infer private states from public acts
4。 To assign responsibility for actions
5。 To explain perseverance despite adversity
C。 Sources of Motivation
1。 Drives and Incentives
a） Drive is defined in biological terms as energy released from an
organism’s store； the fuel of action
b） Drive Theory was fully developed by Hull； who believed
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CHAPTER 12： MOTIVATION
Motivation was necessary for learning to occur
（i） Learning is essential for successful adaptation to the
environment
（ii） Tension reduction is reinforcing； but is not sufficient to
explain all types of motivated behavior
（iii） Organisms seek to maintain homeostasis； a state of
equilibrium
c） Behavior can also be motivated by incentives； external stimuli
or rewards that do not relate directly to biological needs
2。 Reversal Theory
a） Apter’s reversal theory hypothesizes four pairs of
metamotivational states； states that give rise to distinct
patterns of motivation
（i） Telic–Paratelic： serious vs。 playful
（ii） Conformist–Negativistic： pliant vs。 rebellious
（iii） Mastery–Sympathy： power…oriented vs。 care…oriented
（iv） Autic–Alloic： concern for self vs。 concern for others
b） Seeks to explain motivation in terms of reversals from one
state to another
3。 Instinctual Behaviors and Learning
a） Instincts are preprogrammed tendencies that are essential for
the survival of their species
b） To what degree is human behavior instinctual？
（i） James （1890） proposed humans are more reliant on
instinct than other animals； stating both human and
animal behaviors are purposive； serving important
purposes in the organism’s adaptation to its
environment
（ii） Freud （1915） proposed that humans experience drive
states arise from life and death instincts； calling the
drive state psychic energy
（iii） Behaviorist data indicating behaviors and emotions
are learned rather than instinctive in nature helped to
found instinct theory as an explanation for motivated
behavior
4。 Expectations and Cognitive Approaches to Motivation
a） An expectation is an idea about the future likelihood of getting
something that is wanted
b） Significant human motivation derives from the individual’s
subjective interpretation of reality
c） Social…learning theory developed the importance of
expectations in motivating behavior。 The probability of
engaging in a given behavior is determined by：
（i） Expectation of attaining a goal that follows the
219
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
activity
（ii） Personal value of that goal to the individual
（iii） A discrepancy between expectations and reality can
motivate the individual to perform corrective
behaviors
d） Heider posited that behavioral oute can be attributed to：
（i） Dispositional forces； such as lack of effort or low
intelligence
（ii） Situational forces； such as a biased exam or instructor
（iii） Attributions influencing the way the individual will
behave
II。Eating
A。 The Physiology of Eating
1。 Regulation of effective food intake requires organisms to be equipped
with mechanisms that acplish four tasks
a） Detect internal food need
b） Initiate and organize eating behavior
c） Monitor quantity and quality of food eaten
d） Detect when sufficient food has been eaten and stop eating
2。 Peripheral Responses
a） Cannon （1934） proposed gastric activity in an empty stomach
was the sole basis for hunger； an unsupported position on
discovery that stomach contractions are not a necessary
condition for hunger
b） Research shows gastric distension caused by ingestion of
food causes the individual to stop eating
3。 Central Responses
a） Early theories about brain centers for initiation and cessation
of eating were built around observations of the lateral
hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalunus； leading
to the dual…center model of response
b） Dual…center model discredited after learning that the two
basic signals that initiate eating e from receptors
monitoring levels of sugar and fat in the blood
B。 The Psychology of Eating
1。 Psychological focus is on circumstances in which people try to
exercise control over the consequences