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Third； cohesiveness of a stage and a mon conceptual base indicate that the stage itself must fit
within the overall theoretical construct； as implied by the underlying conceptual basis of the
theoretical position。 Finally； stage theories represent a series of building blocks； in that one builds
on the other in a hierarchical fashion。 Each stage must progress logically from the one preceding it；
and lead logically to the one following。 If a given theory satisfies these four requirements； we can
properly refer to it as a stage theory。
Identity and the Tasks of Adolescence
Sometimes a concept from academic research or theory catches the attention of the public and
bees integrated into the framework of society’s “general knowledge。” Perhaps this occurs
because the concept is relevant at the time； or because it provides a framework for a generally
recognized problem or issue。 The “identity crisis” proposed by Erik Erikson is such a concept； and
was eagerly adopted by American society in the 1960s。 At that time； the baby…boom cohort was
reaching adolescence。 The Vietnam War loomed as a threat to youth。 Civil rights activists
challenged the thoughtless discrimination of older generations； and the women’s liberation
movement contested traditional ideas of female identity。 Also； by the 1960s； adolescence had
bee established as a life stage created by technological society； giving status to a span of years
between childhood and full adult status during which the young person prepared to live and work
in an increasingly plex society。
Erikson saw adolescence as a pivotal stage of development in which earlier psychosocial conflicts
return in a new form； and in which the foundations are laid for the intimacy； generativity； and
wisdom that are the favorable outes of later stages。 Developmental psychologists sometimes
organize discussion of life stage around the developmental tasks of the stage； those things we must
do to be ready to move on to the next stage。 The elements of the identity crisis can be considered
“tasks of adolescence。”
Acquiring Temporal Perspective
203
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
One aspect of temporal perspective is to have a clear conception of past and future； and to have the
confidence to plan。 Another aspect of temporal perspective is the ability to regulate one’s own time。
Freshman entering the university environment and who are living away from home for the first time
often have difficulty regulating their own time。 With no parent present to say “go to bed；” they will
solve the world’s problems all night and be unable to get up for class the next morning。 There are
people in middle age who lose jobs； miss airplanes； and alienate friends because of their lack of
ability to regulate their time。
Acquiring Self…Certainty
Self…certainty is equivalent to what is also referred to as self…confidence or self…esteem。 Erikson
thought that efforts to begin to “sever the apron strings” and to bee an autonomous or
independent person begin early in life； about the time we begin to walk。 If the child sees herself
being able to do for herself and acplish little things independently； then she has the basis to
develop confidence in herself。 In adolescence； there are new threats to self…confidence； such as the
prospect of having to be financially independent and to find a desirable partner。 Another aspect of
self…certainty is that it must be acpanied by a self…image that is patible with reality。 Self…
esteem that is unrealistic is a defense； a fantasy that prevents self…fulfillment。
Role Experimentation
During childhood； we usually look to parents or teacher for role models。 In adolescence； young
people are likely to reject earlier models and to go through a series of “trying on” different roles。 The
movies and television provide a smorgasbord of roles and role models。 Role models can be real
people； characters from fiction； historical personages； or creations of our own imagination。 Erikson
thought that role experimentation is a healthy manifestation of the search for identity； but at some
time we have to take the pieces we like from our role experimentation and put them together into a
consistent identity。 The opposite of role experimentation is role fixation。 Sometimes one encounters
a young person who has had an identity laid on him so heavily by parents that attempts at role
experimentation produce too much guilt to be pursued。
Apprenticeship
Theorists are often reluctant to talk about anything as mundane as a getting a job and earning a
living； but Erikson recognized that the prospect of having to be self…supporting is a real concern of
adolescents。 This does not mean that an adolescent has to choose his or her life’s work in junior
high school； but it does mean making general preparation for independence。 The university student
may not have chosen a career or even have decided on a major； but the fact that he or she is in a
college class suggests that the individual does not suffer from what Erikson called “work
paralysis。”
Sexual Polarization
The obvious meaning of this aspect of identity is that adolescents must e to grips with whether
they are heterosexual； bisexual； or homosexual。 It must be difficult for the young person who has a
homosexual orientation to establish a positive identity during adolescence。 There are great
pressures for denial and for conformity to sexual roles that parents and most peers consider
“normal。” Erikson wrote about the aspect of sexual polarization that can be described as “fort
and confidence in the role of male or female。” In early adolescence； young people often feel sexually
inadequate because their bodies are less than perfect； or because they feel inferior to peers who tell
tall tales of sexual adventures and prowess。 Sexual roles are not as clearly delineated as they
formerly were； particularly in the case of the female role； and young females may feel less than
feminine if they have ambitious career aspirations and inadequate as humans if they don’t。
204
CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
Questions of Authority： Being a Leader and a Follower
Resentment of authority is so mon among American adolescents that it is tempting to think of it
as normal。 Differentiating between legitimate authority and arbitrary authority is a task of identity
establishment。 Identity formation includes being able to take the role of leader or follower in the
appropriate circumstances。
Ideological mitment
As the identity is formed； young people must select a basic philosophy； a set of values； and an
orientation toward religion and politics。 Excessive zeal for a cause； dramatic religious conversion；
and allegiance to a cult are some of the extreme symptoms of young people searching for something
to believe in。 The task the adolescent faces is to adopt an ideology that is internally consistent and
patible with the self and the self…image。
It may seem as though identity formation requires that one lay down plans for the remainder of
one’s life and adopt beliefs that will guide one’s behavior for all time。 Of course； this is not the
situation。 Identity formation is bringing together various aspects of the self into a coherent whole
and establishing a psychic “core” that defines the self。 It is probably not a coincidence that
Erikson’s identity crisis begins concurrently with Piaget’s stage of formal operations。 Some of the
cognitive skills of the mature intellect represented by this stage of cognitive development are
instrumental in bringing together the threads of the self。
Myths about Aging
Aging is one of the mysteries of human life that has been a focus of science for a number of years。
Researchers divide aging into two categories： primary aging and secondary aging。 Secondary aging
is change that occurs as a result of disease； stress； poor diet； lack of exercise； or exposure to toxic
substances…any factor that contributes to aging that is actually or potentially preventable。 What is
left is primary aging。 If genes were programmed to effect ch