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well as being able to integrate information across sensory
domains
b） The preoperational child revisited
（i） Egocentrism may not be ongoing； as recent research
indicates the child to have the ability to take the
perspective of the other if the task is simple
（ii） Children at this stage also have the ability to
differentiate mental and physical worlds； if they are
asked the correct questions
（iii） Recent research indicates the preoperational child is
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not exclusively centrated
3。 Children’s Foundational Theories
a） Recent research explores the notion that changes occur
separately； in several domains； as the child develops
foundational theories； or frameworks for initial
understanding； to explain experiences of the world
b） Children accumulate experiences into a theory of mind；
through performing the functions of psychologists
c） Children must be young practitioners of disciplines such as
physics and biology in order to perfect their understanding of
various aspects of the world
4。 Social and Cultural Influences on Cognitive Development
a） Late in his life； Piaget began to question the cross…cultural
validity of his findings。 Research has since shown that there
are cross…cultural differences in cognitive development。
b） Vygotsky argued that children developed through a process of
internalization； that they absorb knowledge from their social
context。
c） The concept of internalization helps to explain the effect
culture has on cognitive development。
D。 Cognitive Development in Adulthood
1。 Intelligence
a） Only about 5 percent of the healthy elderly experience a major
loss in cognitive functioning
b） Age…related decline in functioning is usually limited to only
some abilities； such as
（i） Difficulty in forming new associations
（ii） Slower acquisition of new information
c） As pared to crystallized intelligence； only fluid
intelligence shows a slight decline with increasing age
d） Wisdom； experience in the fundamental pragmatics of life； may
experience age…related gains
2。 Elderly individuals who pursue high levels of environmental
stimulation tend to maintain high levels of cognitive functioning
a） Disuse； rather than decay； may be responsible for isolated
deficits in cognitive functioning
b） Successful aging may be linked to a strategy of selective
optimization with pensation
（i） Selective means scaling down the number and extent
of goals
（ii） Optimization refers to exercising or training oneself in
areas of individual highest priority
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
（iii） pensation means using alternative methods of
dealing with losses； such as choosing age…friendly
environments
3。 Memory
a） Not all memory systems show age…related deficits； general
knowledge store and personal information does not appear to
diminish
b） Older adults do experience difficulty in acquisition of new
information
c） Elderly individuals’ memory performance may be impaired by
their belief that their memory will be poor
d） Certain age…related neurobiological changes may result in
impaired memory：
（i） Loss or decay of cells in the brain
（ii） Deficiencies in neurotransmitters
（iii） Patients with Alzheimer’s disease experience gradual
loss of memory； as well as deterioration of
personality； which
（a） Affects ±5％ of individuals past age 65 and
±20％ of individuals past age 80
（b） Deceptively mild onset
（c） Steady deterioration； including
（d） Gradual personality changes
（e） Inattentiveness and mutism
（f） Lack of ability to care for oneself
（g） Loss of memory for who they are
（h） Eventual death
IV。 Acquiring Language
A。 Most researchers agree that the ability to learn language is biologically based–that it is an
innate capacity
1。 Perceiving Speech and Perceiving Words： A child’s first step in acquiring
language is noting sound contrasts that are used meaningfully in that
language
a） When using signed languages； the child must attend to
contrasts in such things as positions of the hands
b） Minimal meaningful units in speech are phonemes
c） Children habituate to phonemes； learning to distinguish
between different sounds
B。 Learning Word Meanings
1。 Naming explosion occurs at about 18 months
2。 Average 6…year…old understands about 14；000 words
3。 Children develop hypotheses about meanings of words； which may
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result in
a） Overextensions： incorrect use of words to cover a wide range of
subjects； such as using “doggie” for any four…legged animal
b） Underextensions： such as thinking “doggie” refers only to the
family pet
c） Hypotheses may be constrained by mutual exclusivity； in
which the child may act as if each object must have only one
label
4。 Bootstrapping occurs when children make use of what they already
know to acquire new meanings
C。 Acquiring Grammar
1。 Grammar is the rules by which units of meaning are bined into
larger units
2。 Chomsky argued that children are born with mental structures that
facilitate the prehension and production of language； thus
removing some parental pressures to teach grammar explicitly
a） Referential children’s vocabularies consist largely of nouns
b） Expressive children’s vocabularies consist largely of
formulaic expressions
c） Referential and expressive children appear to believe； at an
early age； in different functions for language； and follow
different paths to acquisition of grammar
D。 Language…Making Capacity
1。 Aspects of acquisition are believed to be biologically predetermined
2。 Children bring innate guidelines to the task of learning a particular
language
3。 Slobin defined a set of operating principles that constitute the child’s
language…making capacity
a） Operating principles take the form of directives to the child
b） Principles are encoded as part of the human genome。
Examples include：
（i） Telegraphic speech： use of two…word phrases which
lack functions
（ii） Extensions： the child’s attempts to try （in all cases） and
use the same unit of meaning （morpheme） to mark the
same concept； often resulting in over regularization
V。Social Development Across the Life Span
A。 Social development concerns how individuals’ social interactions and expectations
change across the life span
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
B。 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
1。 Erikson proposed that there are eight stages of psychosocial
development across the life span
2。 Each stage presents a conflict for resolution。 Conflicts at each stage
must be successfully resolved in order to cope successfully with
subsequent stages
3。 Stages； crises； and approximate age range for each：
a） Trust vs。 mistrust： child’s sense of safety vs。 insecurity； birth to
1。5 years
b） Autonomy vs。 self…doubt： sense of self…efficacy vs。 feelings of
inadequacy； 1。5 to 3 years
c） Initiative vs。 guilt： confidence in self as an initiator vs。 feelings
of lack of self…worth； 3 to 6 years
d） petence vs。 inferiority： adequacy in basic social and
intellectual skills vs。 feelings of failure and lack of self…
confidence； 6 years to puberty
e） Identity vs。 role confusion： fortable sense of self vs。
fragmented； unclear sense of self； adolescent years
f） Intimacy vs。 isolation： capacity for mitment to another vs。
feelings of separation； aloneness； early adulthood
g） Generativity vs。 stagnation： concerns go beyond the self； to
society vs。 self…indulgence and lack of future orientation；
middle adulthood
h） Ego…integrity vs。 despair： sense of satisfaction with life vs。
feelings of futility and disappointment with life； later
adulthood
C。 Social Development in Childhood
1。 Socialization is the lifelong process through which an individual’s
behavior patterns； values； standards； skills； attitudes； and motives are
shaped to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular
society
a） Most important socializing agent is the family
b） Parental socializa