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e） Mother feels fetal movements at about week 16
f） Prenatal brain growth generates 250；000 neurons per minute
（i） Proliferation and migration of neurons in humans
and many other mammals occur prenatally
（ii） Development of branching processes of axons and
dendrites occurs largely after birth
2。 Babies Prewired for Survival
a） Hearing functions before birth； as evidenced by neonates
preference for its mother’s voice
b） Vision is less well developed at birth than are other senses；
and though “legally blind；” neonates’ eyes turn in the
direction of a voice
（i） Infants perceive best large objects displaying high
contrast
（ii） By 4 months of age； infants prefer looking at
contoured objects rather than plain ones； plex
objects to simple ones； and whole faces to those with
disarrayed features
3。 Growth and Maturation in Childhood
a） Disproportionate early growth takes place within the head
（i） Total mass of axons and neurons rapidly increases
the total mass of brain cells
（ii） Infant boys’ weight doubles in the first 6 months of
life； and triples by age 1
（iii） At age 2； the child’s trunk is about half its adult
length
（iv） Genital tissue growth is unremarkable until
adolescence
b） Much of early growth occurs in concentrated bursts
c） In most children； physical growth is acpanied by
maturation of motor ability
d） Maturation refers to the process of growth typical of all
members of a species who are reared in the species usual
habitat； and describes systematic changes occurring； over
time； in bodily functioning and behavior
e） Maturation is influenced by genetic factors； pre… and postnatal
chemical environments； and sensory factors that are constant
for all members of the species
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
f） By ages 6 to 7； most basic motor skills are in place
4。 Physical Development in Adolescence
a） First concrete indication of childhood’s end is the pubescent
growth spurt； about age 10 for girls and about 12 for boys； with
flow of hormones into bloodstream
b） Puberty； sexual maturity； is reached 2 to 3 years following the
onset of the growth spurt
（i） For females； puberty begins with menarche
（ii） For males； puberty begins with production of live
sperm
（iii） Physical changes often bring an awareness of sexual
feelings
c） Physical changes of adolescence may exaggerate the
adolescent’s concern with their body image； their subjective
view of their appearance
（i） Females seem to have less average confidence in their
physical attractiveness dm do males
（ii） When exaggerated； females preoccupation with body
image and aspects of the social self can lead to self…
destructive behavior； such as eating disorders
（a） Anorexia； involves self…imposed starvation
（b） Bulimia； involves binging and purging
C。 Physical Changes In Adulthood
1。 Some senses may bee less acute
2。 Changes occur gradually
3。 Many physical changes occur as a result of disuse； rather than aging
4。 Some changes are largely unavoidable
a） Visual function diminishes for most people over age 65
（i） Lenses of eyes bee yellowed and less flexible
（ii） Lens rigidity impacts adaptation to dark
b） Hearing loss is mon past age 60
（i） Older adults may have difficulty hearing high…
frequency sounds； with males experiencing more
difficulty than females
（ii） Changes in hearing are gradual and may not be
realized until they are extreme
c） Reproductive and sexual functioning changes
（i） Females experience menopause around age 50
（ii） Quantity of sperm in males decreases after age 40；
and seminal fluid volume declines past age 60
（iii） Increasing age and physical change do not
necessarily impair other aspects of sexual experience
III。 Cognitive Development across the Life Span
185
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
A。 Cognitive development is the study of the processes and products of the mind； as they
emerge and change over time
B。 Piaget’s Insights into Mental Development
1。 Piaget saw the mind as an active biological system； seeking； selecting；
interpreting； and reorganizing environmental information to fit with
or adjust to its own existing mental structures
2。 Piaget’s interest was not in the amount of information children
possessed； but in the ways children’s thinking and inner
representations of outer physical reality changed at different stages in
their development
3。 Schemes are the mental structures enabling the individual to interpret
the world
a） Schemes are the building blocks of development change
b） Piaget characterized infants’ initial schemes as sensorimotor
intelligence
（i） First dependent on physical presence of objects that
could be sucked； watched； or grasped
（ii） Later； mental structures increasingly incorporate
symbolic representations of outer reality
4。 Piaget saw cognitive development as the result of the interweaving of
assimilation and acmodation。 These two processes work in tandem
to achieve cognitive growth
a） Assimilation modifies new environmental information to fit
into what is already known
b） Acmodation restructures or modifies the child’s existing
schemes so that new information is accounted for more
pletely
c） Discrepancies between already held ideas and new
experiences force development of more adaptive inner
structures and processes that permit creative and appropriate
actions to meet future challenges
5。 Stages in Cognitive Development
a） Sensorimotor stage： infancy； roughly from birth to age 2
（i） Child is tied to the immediate environment and
motor…action themes
（ii） Most important cognitive acquisition of infancy is
attainment of object permanence； the ability to form
mental representations of absent objects
b） Preoperational stage： roughly 2 to 7 years of age
（i） Main cognitive advance is improved ability to
mentally represent objects not physically present
186
CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
（ii） Piaget characterized this stage in terms of what the
child cannot do； other than the development of
representational thought
（iii） Child’s thoughts at this stage are characterized by
egocentrism； an inability to take the perspective of
another； or to imagine a scene from any perspective
other than one’s own； as demonstrated by Piaget’s
three…mountain task
（iv） Children at this stage have difficulty distinguishing
the mental from the physical world； as demonstrated
by animistic thought
（v） Centration is the tendency to be captivated （centrated）
by the more perceptually striking features of objects
c） Concrete operational stage： roughly ages 7 to 11 years of age
（i） Child is capable of mental operations
（ii） Mastery of conservation is a hallmark of this stage
（iii） Children at this stage generally do not ask abstract
questions； but remain with specifics
d） Formal operational stage： roughly from age 11 on
（i） Represent the final stage of cognitive growth； in
which thinking bees abstract
（ii） Adolescents realize their reality is only one of several
that are imaginable； and begin pondering deeper
questions of truth； justice； and existence
（iii） Individual begins to impose his/her own structures
on tasks； beginning with broad categories； then
formulating and testing hypotheses in light of the
individual’s knowledge of categories and
relationships
C。 Contemporary Perspectives on Early Cognitive Development
1。 Contemporary research posits a greater degree of order； organization；
and coherence in the perceptual and cognitive experience of the infant
and young child than that proposed by Piaget
2。 Recent research shows that differences in conceptual understanding
between preoperational and concrete operational children may be a
difference in immediate memory
a） The sensorimotor child revisited： 3…month…old neonates may
have already developed the concept of object permanence； as
well as being able to integrate information across sensory
domains
b） The preoperational child revisited
（i） Egocentrism may not be ongoing