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differences in thought。 The hypothesis contains two tenets：
a） Linguistic Relativity suggests that structural differences
between languages will generally be paralleled by
nonlinguistic cognitive differences in the native speakers of
the two languages
b） Linguistic Determinism suggests that the structure of a
language strongly influences or fully determines the way its
native speakers perceive and reason about the world
2。 Research does not support the strong claim of linguistic determinism
that language is destiny； although it does support the weaker claim
that language differences yield parallel cognitive differences
III。 Visual Cognition
A。 Using Visual Representations
1。 Reaction time required for mental manipulation of rotated visual
images was in direct proportion to the degree that the image had been
rotated
2。 Consistency of reaction time suggested that the process of mental
rotation was very similar to the process of physical rotation of objects
3。 People scan visual images as if they were scanning real objects
B。 bining Verbal and Visual Representations
1。 Spatial mental models are often formed to capture properties of real and
imagined spatial experiences
2。 In reading descriptive passages； people often form a spatial mental
model to keep track of the whereabouts of characters
3。 When people think about the world around them； they almost always
bine visual and verbal representations of information
IV。 Problem Solving and Reasoning
A。 Both require bination of current information with information stored in memory to
work toward a particular goal； a conclusion or a solution
B。 Problem solving
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1。 The formal definition of a problem space； of how a problem is defined in
real life； captures three elements：
a） An initial state—the inplete information or unsatisfactory
conditions with which you start
b） A goal state—the set of information or state of the world you
hope to achieve
c） A set of operations—the steps you may take to move from the
initial state to the goal state
2。 Well…defined problems have the initial state； the goal state； and the
operations all clearly specified
3。 An ill…defined problem exists when the initial state； the goal state；
and/or the operations may be unclear and vaguely specified
4。 Algorithms are step…by…step procedures that always provide the right
answer to a particular type of problem
5。 Heuristics are strategies or “rules of thumb” that problem solvers often
use when algorithms are not available
6。 Think…aloud protocols ask participants to verbalize their ongoing
thoughts
7。 Problem solving can be improved by planning the series of operations
that it will take to solve the problem。 This assures that the small steps
needed to solve the problem do not overwhelm processing resources。
a） Finding a way to represent a problem so that each operation is
possible； given processing resources
b） Practicing each of the ponents of the solution so that； over
time； those ponents require fewer resources
8。 Functional Fixedness is a mental block that adversely affects problem
solving by inhibiting the perception of a new function for an object
C。 Deductive Reasoning
1。 Deductive reasoning is a form of thinking in which one draws a logical
conclusion from two or more statements or premises
2。 Requires reformulation of an interchange to fit the structure of a
syllogism； thus defining the logical relationships between statements
that will lead to valid conclusions
3。 Involves the correct application of logical rules； and is impacted by
both the specific knowledge possessed about the world and the
representational sources that can be brought to bear on a reasoning
problem。
a） What is invalid in logic； however； is not necessarily untrue in
real life； and information that is accepted as true can result in
biased beliefs：
b） In the belief…bias effect； people tend to judge as valid those
conclusions for which they can construct a reasonable real…
world model and as invalid those for which they cannot
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CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
c） Experience improves the individual’s reasoning ability； such
that when a posed problem is familiar in real life； you can use
a pragmatic reasoning schema
d） Mental models may be used when pragmatic reasoning
schemas are not available。 Mental models reproduce the
details of a situation as accurately as possible； given the
limitations of working memory。 Mental models work best
when a unique model of the world can be created
D。 Inductive Reasoning
1。 Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning that uses available evidence
to generate likely； but not certain； conclusions
2。 Allows access to tried…and…true methods that speed current problem
solving
a） Analogical problem solving permits establishment of an analogy
between features of the current situation and those of previous
situations
b） Past experience permits generalization of a solution from an
earlier problem to a new problem
c） Caution must be employed with inductive reasoning； in that
the belief that a solution has worked previously may impair
problem solving in the current situation
d） Mental sets are preexisting states of mind； habit； or attitude
that can enhance the quality and speed of perceiving and
problem solving； under some but not all conditions
V。 Judging and Deciding
A。 Definitions
1。 Bounded rationality suggests that decisions and judgment might not be
as good； as rational； as they always could be； but that they result from
applying limited “rational” resources to situations that require
immediate action
2。 Judgment is the process by which you form opinions； reach
conclusions； and make critical evaluations of events and people。
Judgments are often made spontaneously； without prompting
3。 Decision making is the process of choosing between alternatives；
selecting and rejecting available options
4。 Judgment and decision making are interrelated processes
B。 Heuristics and Judgment
1。 Heuristics are informal rules of thumb that provide shortcuts；
reducing the plexity of making judgments； they generally increase
the efficiency of thought processes
a） The availability heuristic suggests that people often make
decisions based on information that is readily available in
memory。 The availability heuristic may lead to faulty
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
decisions when：
（i） Memory processes give rise to a biased sample or
information
（ii） Information stored in memory is inaccurate
b） The representativeness heuristic is captures the idea that people
use past information to make judgments about similar
circumstances in the present。 The representativeness heuristic
may lead to faulty decisions when：
（i） It causes you to ignore other types of relevant
information
（ii） You fail to be guided by representativeness
c） The anchoring heuristic suggests that people often do not adjust
sufficiently up or down from an original starting value when
judging the probable value of some oute。 The anchoring
heuristic may lead to faulty decisions when：
（i） The anchoring information has no validity
C。 The Psychology of Decision Making
1。 Framing of gains and losses
a） A frame is a particular description of a choice； most often
perceived in terms of gains or losses
（i） Framing a decision in terms of gains or in terms of
losses can influence the decision that is made
（ii） Knowledge of framing effects can help you
understand how people e to radically different
decisions； when faced with the same evidence
2。 Decision aversion is a situation in which the individual will try hard to
avoid making any decision at all
a） Decision aversion is most often seen in the tendency to avoid
making difficult decisions
b） Psychological forces at work in this process include：
（i） People do not like making decisions that will result in
some people having more of some desired good and
others less
（ii） People are able to anticipate the regret they will feel if
the option chosen turns out wo