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and the cognitive distortions created while reconstructing memories。 Shows what it is like to have
no memory at all； how real learning involves the transfer of information from short…term to long…
term memory； and how the use of retrieval cues can improve one’s ability to remember。
Memory （1990）。 Insight Media； 30 minutes
Biological and cognitive research findings related to how we store； encode； and retrieve memories
are discussed by leading memory researchers。 The program shows what memory disturbances are
and how certain problems can results from accidents or disease。 Memory of dramatic events is
analyzed and the practical application of memory research to witness recall in criminal trials is
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
discussed。
Memory： Fabric of the Mind （1998）。 FFHS； 28 minutes
Examines information storage and retrieval in human memory。 A good review of memory research
and theory。 Selected for preview at the APA convention in 1989。
The Life of the Mind： Cognitive Processes and Memory （1991）。 The Teaching pany； in
collaboration with the Smithsonian。
One of eight lectures with Richard Gerrig from an award…winning teacher series。 This volume
explores cognitive processes and memory。
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CHAPTER 8： MEMORY
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CHAPTER 9
Cognitive Processes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter； students should be able to：
1。 Describe the differences and similarities between automatic and controlled processes
2。 Define Grice’s maxims for language production
3。 Describe the various forms of ambiguity in language prehension
4。 Explain the significance of inference in the cognitive processing of language
5。 Demonstrate understanding of the significance of Paivio’s dual…coding theory
6。 Define “problem space；” and its relationship to problemsolving
7。 Suggests techniques to improve problem solving skills
8。 Elaborate on the difference between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning
9。 Understand the heuristics and biases involved in judgments and decision making
10。 Articulate the significance of framing and reference points relative to decision making
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 Studying Cognition
A。 Definitions
1。 Cognition is a general term for all forms of knowing
2。 The contents of cognition are what you know—concepts； facts；
propositions； rules； and memories
3。 Cognitive processes are how you manipulate these mental contents
4。 Cognitive psychology is the study of cognition
B。 Discovering the Processes of Mind
1。 Donders devised the subtraction method； one of the fundamental
methodologies for studying mental processes
2。 He proposed that extra mental steps will often result in more time
required to perform a given task
3。 Response selection requires more time than stimulus categorization；
because response selection includes stimulus categorization
4。 Reaction time has replaced the subtraction method as a method of
testing specific accounts of how a given cognitive process is carried
out
C。 Mental Processes and Mental Resources
1。 Demands on mental resources may help determine if a process is
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CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
serial or parallel
a） Serial processes require separate examination of each
individual element in an array； one after another
b） Parallel processes entail the simultaneous examination of all
elements in an array
2。 Reaction time is often used to try to determine if a specific mental
process is carried out in parallel or serially
3。 A key assumption is that limited processing resources must be spread
over different mental tasks
4。 Attentional processes are responsible for distributing these resources
5。 Some processes place higher demands on mental resources dm do
others
6。 Controlled processes require attention and thus greater allocation of
mental resources
7。 Automatic processes generally do not require attention and can often be
performed along with other tasks without interference
D。 The goal of much cognitive psychological research is to invent experiments that confirm
each of the ponents of models that bine serial and parallel； and controlled and
automatic processes
II。Language Use
A。 Language Production
1。 Language production concerns what people say； as well as the
processes they go through to produce the message
a） Includes both signing and writing； as well as speaking
b） Refers to language producers as speakers and to language
understanders as listeners
2。 Audience design requires that； on producing an utterance； one must
have in mind the audience to which that utterance is directed and
what knowledge you share with members of that audience
a） The Cooperative Principle is instructs to speakers to produce
utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the
ongoing conversation。 There are four maxims that cooperative
speakers should live by：
（i） Quantity： Make your contribution as informative as is
required； but do not make it more informative than
required
（ii） Quality： Try to make your contribution one that is true
（iii） Relation： Be relevant
（iv） Manner： Be perspicacious； avoid obscurity of
expression； avoid ambiguity； be brief； be orderly
b） A presumption of the listener knowing all that you know is
referred to as mon ground。 Judgments of mon ground
are based on three sources of evidence：
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
（i） munity membership： Assumptions made by
language producers about what is likely to be
mutually known； based on shared membership in
munities of various sizes
（ii） Linguistic copresence： Assumptions made by language
producers that information contained in earlier parts
of a conversation； or in past conversations； are
mon ground
（iii） Physical copresence： Exists when a speaker and a
listener are directly in the physical presence of objects
or situations
3。 Speech Execution and Speech Errors
a） Speech errors give researchers insight into the planning
needed to produce utterances
（i） Speakers must choose content words that best fit their
ideas
（ii） Speakers must place the chosen words in the right
place in the utterance
（iii） Speakers must fill in the sounds that make up the
words they wish to utter
b） Spoonerisms–one type of speech error–consist of an exchange
of the initial sounds of two or more words in a phrase or
sentence。 Spoonerisms are more likely to occur when the error
will still result in real words
c） Spontaneous and laboratory induced errors provide evidence
about processes and representations in speech execution
B。 Language Understanding
1。 Resolving ambiguity involves detangling two types of ambiguity
a） Structural ambiguity involves determining which of two （or
more） meanings the structure of a sentence implies； and is
dependent largely on prior context for resolution
b） Lexical ambiguity involves determining which of the various
meanings of a word may be appropriate in this context。 To
eliminate this ambiguity is referred to as “disambiguating”
the word。 Two models are proposed for disambiguation。
（i） The constant order model states that； regardless of the
context preceding the use of a word； its meanings are
always tested in constant order； from most to least
likely
（ii） The reordering by context model states that the
context that precedes a word can change the order in
which one tests its multiple definitions
（iii） Context actively affects listener’s consideration of the
meanings of ambiguous words
2。 Products of Understanding
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CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
a） Research suggests that meaning representations that follow
understanding of utterances or texts begin with basic units
called propositions。 Propositions are the main ideas of
utterances。
b） Listeners often fill gaps in information with inferences。
Inferences are logical assumptions made possible by
information in memory。
C。 Language； Thought； and Culture
1。 The Sapir…Whorf hypothesis suggests that differences in language create
differences in thought。 The hypothesis contains two tenets：
a） Linguistic Relativity