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b） Self…hypnosis is the best approach to controlling pain because
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individuals can essentially self…medicate whenever pain
arises
c） Research on hypnotic pain reduction suggests that hypnosis
segregates consciousness into two levels。 One level is a full；
but hypnotic； consciousness。 The second level is a Hidden
Observer； a concealed nonconscious awareness that monitors
the hypnotized consciousness。
d） People cannot be made to do anything that they do not wish
to do under hypnosis
C。 Meditation
1。 Meditation is a form of consciousness change designed to enhance self…
knowledge and well…being by reducing self…awareness
a） Critics argue that there is little difference between a normal
resting state with the eyes closed and the state entered
through meditation
b） Advocates argue that meditation reduces stress； can improve
IQ； and can even lead to enlightenment
D。 Hallucinations
1。 Hallucinations are false perceptions that occur in the absence of
objective stimulation and can be caused by the following：
a） Heightened arousal
b） States of intense need
c） Inability to suppress threatening thoughts
d） Abnormal brain functioning caused by fevers； seizures； and
migraine headaches
e） Psychoactive drugs； such as LSD and peyote； can also
produce hallucinations by acting directly on the brain
2。 In some cultural and religious settings； hallucinations play an
important mystical or spiritual role
E。 Religious Ecstasy
1。 Religious ecstasy is a unique psychological state characterized by a
sense of oneness and connectedness often brought on by meditation；
prayer； fasting； and spiritual munication
2。 During religious ecstasy； some individuals can do remarkable things
that they ordinarily may not be able to do； such as handling deadly
snakes； drinking poison； and handling fire
F。 Mind…Altering Drugs
1。 Although mind…altering drugs have been used for centuries during
religious ceremonies； today they are associated more often with
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recreational usage
2。 Dependence and Addition
a） Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that affect mental processes；
such as perception； memory； mood； and behavior by
temporarily changing conscious awareness
b） Tolerance may be developed to psychoactive drugs in which
more and more of the drug is needed to produce the same
change in consciousness
c） Physiological dependence is a process in which the body
bees accustomed to the presence of a drug and begins to
depend on its presence to function properly
3。 Varieties of Psychoactive Drugs
a） Hallucinogenic or psychedelic drugs； including LSD； mescaline；
psilocybin； and PCP； can produce profound alterations of both
perception and inner awareness。 They often lead to a loss of
boundary between self and non…self and to confusion。
b） Cannabis； including both marijuana and hashish； can create
mild； pleasurable highs； distortions of space and time；
euphoria； and； occasionally； hallucination。 Possible negative
effects include fear； anxiety； paranoia； confusion； and
retardation of motor function。
c） Opiates； such as heroin and morphine； suppress physical
sensation and stimulation and produce a rush of euphoria。
Because of this rush； any use is likely to lead to serious
addiction。
d） Depressants； such as barbiturates and alcohol； tend to depress
the mental and physical activity of the body by inhibiting the
transmission of nerve impulses in the central nervous system
（i） Barbiturates； such as Valium and Xanax； are
particularly dangerous； accounting for half of drug
overdoses
（ii） Although often socially accepted； alcohol is a major
health and social problem。 Alcohol use can lead to
alcoholism； which can disrupt social and
professional relations； and to serious health
problems。
e） Stimulants； such as amphetamines； cocaine； and crack （a purified
form of cocaine）； induce a sense of euphoria； self…confidence；
and hyperalertness。 Possible negative effects include
paranoid delusions； cycles of euphoric highs and painful
lows； and social isolation。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
（i） Caffeine and nicotine are often unrecognized
stimulants that act on the brain much like other
stimulants。 Nicotine is a dangerous drug that has a
greater impact on health than that of all other
psychoactive drugs bined。
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 The class should now be familiar with dualism and monism； through both the text and
lectures。 Ask them which of these they think best describes the relationship between the
brain and the mind。 Why？ Can anyone think of personal experiences or observations to
support their beliefs？ What about empirical data that might support a given hypothesis？
2。 Zimbardo and Gerrig propose that sleep may have evolved because it gave animals an
opportunity to conserve energy at those times when they did not need to be searching for
food or a mate。 Given that we as humans no longer engage in these activities under the
same constraints as animals； ask the class if they think it possible that we may eventually
evolve out of the need for sleep。
3。 According to Zimbardo and Gerrig； there appears to be a developmental timetable for
dreams that parallels our cognitive developmental pathway； with children being the
example given。 If this premise is valid； what sort of dreams might we expect to see at the
opposite end of the spectrum； during old age？
4。 Ask your students if they have ever had a lucid dream。 Have students share their lucid
experiences。 Students find this subject fascinating； and the topic often leads to lively
discussion concerning the nature of consciousness and the nature of reality。 How would
students use the extra time of consciousness while they are lucid in their dreams？ Would
they use it differently than they would normal consciousness？ Why or why not？
5。 Most sleep researchers argue that people need an average of 8 hours of sleep per day to be
fully rested and alert。 First； you might ask students why they think this is； as most people
today do not physically exert themselves enough to require 8 hours of sleep to physically
recharge themselves。 Second； you might ask students how much sleep they are getting each
night。 My guess is most of them are not getting the remended 8 hours per night。 But
many of them are probably not feeling overtired or sleep deprived。 While the average
amount of required sleep is 8 hours； many people function quite well on 6 or 7 hours per
night； while others need 9 or 10 hours per night。 I had a professor in graduate school who
functioned quite effectively for years on only 3 or 4 hours per night！ The important thing for
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students to know is that not everyone needs the average； but knowing how much sleep
your body needs and adjusting your schedule so that you are getting what you need is
crucial to feeling rested。
6。 Many people sleep somewhat more when they are mildly depressed or experience mild to
moderate stress。 Some students who are juggling school； work； and family/social life find
that they are nodding off every time they sit down or relax； but are still consistently
exhausted。 If they add up all the hours they are “napping；” it can add up to 11 or 12 hours
a day。 Of course； it is not good quality sleep； which means it doesn’t help them feel
“recharged” or well rested。 When I was a psychology intern at a university counseling
center； it was such a mon phenomenon we began calling it “student sleep syndrome。”
Often； students feel even worse when this occurs because they begin to wonder what’s
wrong with them； which pounds their stress。 Most students are relieved to know that
this condition is mon and often disappears when stress levels are reduced。 Usually；
when a student takes a term off or cuts back on his or her schedule； the condition
disappears。 However； as with any dramatic or prolonged change in energy level or
physical condition； students should get a plete physical examination