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Boeing 727 headed toward Tokyo Bay。 The pilot could see the lights of Tokyo and Yokohama
clearly。 He requested and received permission to approach using visual cues rather than relying
exclusively on the instruments of the plane。 The pilot had not even let down the wheels or extended
the flaps when； six and a half miles from the runway； the plane dove into Tokyo Bay at 240 knots。
Preliminary analyses of these and other similar cases showed that all of the accidents occurred at
night； under clear weather conditions； with the planes flying over a dark area of water or land。 In
every case； irregular patterns of light （as opposed to grids of neatly intersecting lines of streetlights）
in the distance had been visible to the pilots。
In a way； the new Boeing 727 design was partly responsible for the accidents； because it was so
well engineered。 In earlier； less stable models； feedback from vibrations； sounds and kinesthetic
sensations would have warned pilots that they were descending too rapidly。 However； it was more
than an improved design that had caused the accidents。
Using a flight simulator； engineering psychologist Conrad Kraft found that an error in the pilot’s
visual perception was responsible for each of the accidents。 Pilots making a visually guided
approach over a dark terrain relied on the relatively constant visual angle between their planes and
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CHAPTER 5： PERCEPTION
the distant light patterns in determining their altitudes。 If they were approaching flat terrain； their
altitude estimates were generally correct； but if the terrain sloped upward； with the farthest lights
higher than the closer ones； even the most experienced pilots descended to dangerously low
altitudes。 With no visual information from the “black hole” below them； the pilots overestimated
their distance from the ground and inappropriately adjusted their descent angles。
Why didn’t the pilots also use their altimeters； which indicated altitude accurately？ When landing
an airplane； a pilot must monitor several functions at once–such as air speed； engine settings；
altitude； glide slope； angle of attack； and heading–while also responding to air traffic controller
directions and watching for other aircraft。 With all of these responsibilities； especially when
visibility is good； pilots may fail to check their altimeters and instead rely on visual cues from the
cockpit。 After Dr。 Kraft solved the mystery of the accidents； mercial airlines around the world
informed pilots of the conditions under which they might misjudge altitude on approach to
landing。 Psychologists such as Dr。 Kraft study perception in order to learn how the major sensory
systems of the body help （and sometimes trick） us in gathering information about the environments
in which we live； work； and play。
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CHAPTER 6
Mind； Consciousness； and Alternate States
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter； students should be able to：
1。 Identify and provide examples of the three levels of consciousness
2。 Describe the origins of the mind—body problem； and Descartes’ mechanistic approach to it
via his theory of the animal machine
Explain the philosophical and theoretical differences between dualism and monism
4。 Define the concepts of the personal construction of reality； the cultural construction of
reality； and the significance of consensual validation of both
5。 Define and give examples of circadian rhythms
6。 Identify the five stages of sleep； as well as the functions of REM sleep
7。 Explain the four major types of sleep disorders
8。 Describe both the basic premises of Freudian dream analysis and the activation synthesis
hypothesis of dreaming
9。 Explain extended states of consciousness； such as hypnosis； meditation； and hallucination
10。 Describe the effects of psychoactive substances
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 The Contents of Consciousness
A。 This chapter discusses ordinary states of consciousness and the mind–body problem； as
well as the more unusual experiences that are part of the human potential； such as
hallucinations； hypnosis； and dreams
B。 Awareness and Consciousness
C。 Consciousness is an ambiguous term that can refer to a general state of mind or to its
specific contents
1。 The contents of consciousness refers to the information at the
intersection of these two types of consciousness
D。 Consciousness has long been a topic of psychological inquiry。 In the late 1800s； Wundt and
Titchener used introspection to explore the contents of the conscious mind and James made
observations of his own “stream of consciousness。”
E。 Ordinary waking consciousness includes perceptions； thoughts； feelings； images； and
desires at a given moment； but consciousness can be formally defined as consisting of three
levels：
1。 Basic level consciousness is an awareness of the inner and outer world–
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CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
awareness that one is perceiving and reacting to perceptual
information
2。 Second level consciousness is the reflection on that of which one is aware
and includes the manipulation of symbolic knowledge free from the
constraints of real objects and present events
3。 Top level consciousness is self…awareness–awareness that one is
conscious and capable of reflection
F。 Accessibility to Consciousness
1。 Non…conscious processes are bodily activities that rarely impinge on
consciousness； such as digestion； regulation of blood pressure； and
breathing
2。 Preconscious memories are memories that bee accessible to
consciousness only after something has called attention to them
3。 Unattended information refers to environmental stimuli that are not the
focus of attention； but that may be processed unconsciously。 If these
stimuli bee relevant； such as when you hear your name at a
cocktail party； it may bee the subject of consciousness。
4。 The Unconscious； most fully elaborated by Freud； refers to mental
processes that are not and cannot be conscious。 Freud believed that
the unconscious was filled with forbidden； traumatic thoughts； while
contemporary researchers examine the more benign aspects of the
unconscious。
G。 Studying the Contents of Consciousness
1。 Two primary methods are used to study consciousness：
a） Think…aloud protocols ask individual to report their thoughts
aloud as they perform an experimental task
b） Experience…sampling methods ask individuals to report their
thoughts and feelings when signaled to do so； often by
electronic pagers
II。The Functions of Consciousness
A。 The Uses of Consciousness
1。 To understand the functions of consciousness； the forces that control
behavior must be understood
2。 Early human ancestors believed in animistic explanations of behavior；
that spiritual forces guided all forms of life
3。 Contemporary researchers have replaced the role of spirits with the
concepts of consciousness and mind
B。 Aiding Survival
1。 Consciousness probably evolved because it helped individuals make
sense of and navigate in the environment。 Consciousness aids
adaptation to the environment in three ways：
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
a） Consciousness performs a restrictive function and tunes out
much information that is irrelevant to immediate goals
b） Consciousness performs a selective storage function for those
special stimuli that are to be analyzed； interpreted； and acted
on
c） Consciousness performs a planning or executive control
function that enables the suppression of strong desires when
they conflict with moral； ethical； or practical concerns
C。 Personal and Cultural Constructions of Reality
1。 A personal construction of reality is an individual’s unique
interpretation of a current situation based on knowledge； memories；
needs； values； beliefs； and goals
a） When a personal construction of reality remains stable over
time； a sense of self or consciousness of self has continuity
over time
2。 Cultural constructions of reality are ways of thinking about the world
that are shared by most members of a particular group of people
3。 Consensual validatio