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human or nonhuman； and to optimize the possible benefits to the participants
and to society
D。 Intentional Deception： APA guidelines make it clear that intentional deception is justified only if：
1。 The study has sufficient scientific and educational importance to warrant
deception
2。 There is no equally effective alternative to deception
3。 Participants are not deceived concerning aspects of the experiment that would
affect their willingness to participate
4。 The deception； and the reasons for it； is fully explained to the participants at
the conclusion of the research
E。 Debriefing
1。 At the conclusion of participation in an experiment； each participant must be
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
told the rationale for the experiment。 This debriefing gives the participant an
opportunity to learn about psychology and themselves； and allows them to
appreciate more fully their experience in the experiment。
F。 Issues in Animal Research： Science； Ethics； Politics
1。 The benefits of animal research include： development and assessment of drugs
that treat anxiety； mental illness； and Parkinson’s disease； knowledge about
drug addition and neuromuscular disorders； and possible treatments and
cures for AIDS。 Animal research not only benefits humans； but has led to many
important vaccines for animals as well。
2。 Despite these acplishments； some believe that it is immoral and
inappropriate to use animals in research。
a） Animals cannot be informed about the nature of the experiment and
thus cannot give their informed consent； as the APA requires with
humans。
b） Because of the sensitive nature of the debate and the fact that animals
cannot give informed consent； reasoned proponents of animal rights
create a moral context in which individual researchers must judge
their research under the highest level of passion and scrutiny
c） Just as it has for human participants； the APA has set strict guidelines
for the treatment of nonhuman participants。 These guidelines state
that：
（i） Facilities for nonhuman participants must be adequate in
size； be well maintained； and have qualified staff
（ii） The health of the animals and their general well…being must
be monitored
（iii） Every effort must be made to minimize pain and disfort
for the animals
（iv） Alternative； less stressful procedures； such as puter
modeling； must be used whenever possible
V。Being a Wiser Research Consumer
A。 One goal of Psychology and Life； 16th Edition is to help your students bee more critical
thinkers。 Critical thinking goes beyond the information given and delves beneath slick appearances；
with the goal of understanding substance without being seduced by style。 Some general rules to keep
in mind to be a more critical thinker include：
1。 Avoid the assumption that correlation equals causation。 It does not。
2。 Be sure that critical terms and concepts are operationally defined so that you
can be sure of their meaning
3。 Before seeking confirming evidence for a theory； look for disconfirming
evidence。 Confirming evidence is easy to find when you are looking for it。
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CHAPTER 2： RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
4。 Always seek alternative explanations that explain results more simply or
pletely； especially when researchers have a stake in the proposed
explanation。 Occam’s Razor is a rule of thumb that proposes that
parsimonious； simple explanations are preferable to plex ones。
5。 Be alert for signs that personal biases may have distorted the research process
and findings
6。 Be suspicious of simple answers to plex problems
7。 When confronted with claims that something is more effective； better； or
superior； be sure that you understand to what it is being pared
8。 Maintain an open mind and a healthy skepticism。 All conclusions are subject
to revision； and some truly novel； bizarre ideas will be correct。
9。 Challenge authority that is unjust； values opinion over evidence； and is not
open to constructive criticism
10。 Of course； all of these suggestions should be applied to your reading of
Psychology and Life！
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 What role does the scientific method play in contemporary psychology？ What are the limitations of
the scientific method； and are there any better alternatives available？ Students are often skeptical of
the scientific method and are eager to point out its flaws； such as the slow incremental progress it
generates； its reliance on measurable phenomena； its susceptibility to experimenter biases； and its
sterile methodology。 Students often fail to realize； however； that； although it may be flawed； the
scientific method is the best tool we have to generate valid； reliable knowledge and that it has
provided us with a wealth of discoveries。
2。 What psychological principles have bee part of the larger culture； have penetrated our thinking
and language？ Psychological principles permeate advertising； marketing； television； movies； sales；
self…help books； fashion； politics； and folk wisdom； to name a few； but students are often unaware of
this influence。 Pointing out this influence is a good way to keep your students’ interest。 For
example； the concept of “psychological stress；” so prevalent in our cultural landscape； was rarely
mentioned 50 years ago。
3。 Ask your students how many of them believe in determinism。 Then ask them many of them believe
in free will。 Insist that they cannot have it both ways。 You will be surprised to find that many； if not
most； students believe in free will。 This is a terrific discussion starter； because it conflicts with one
of the fundamental assumptions of science and psychology–determinism。 You might ask your
students what science can hope to reveal if the world is not determined。 You might also suggest
that what feels like free will to us may be thinly disguised determinism。 This simple discussion is
often enough to change the manner in which students view themselves and the manner in which
they view those around them。
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
The Ethics of Animal Research
The use of animals in research is a controversial topic； and one certain to generate animated class
discussion。 One reason that it is controversial is that it touches on fundamental values； attitudes； and
ethical and moral issues。 Psychologists are interested in these issues from both a scientific and a human
perspective。 As scientists； psychologists may ask why others are so emotionally captivated by the issue；
why some individuals seem more concerned with protecting animals than with protecting humans； why a
secure life in a cage is worse than an uncertain life in the wild； and what scientific justification there is to
preclude research on animals。 As humans； psychologists may be moved by passion for caged animals；
feel empathy at the animals lack of understanding of what is happening to them； and be morally convinced
that researchers have no more right to force an animal to participate in research than they do in forcing
humans to participate。
Of course； there are no easy answers to these questions； but there is an interesting way to view animal
research that many people have not considered。 Animal research benefits humans to the extent that
findings from research with them are generalizable to humans。 Because of this problem of transfer of results
from animals to humans； the most beneficial research is often done on animals that are most closely related
to humans； such as chimpanzees。 For example； much research on FHV and ADDS is done on monkeys；
because their immune systems function much like humans and because they are susceptible to a virus； SIV；
that is closely related to FHV。 These monkeys； however； share 99 percent of their genetic material with
humans。 If the reason that we do not use humans in some types of research is because it is unethical； it
would seem that the more closely an animal was related to humans； the less ethical it would be to use them
in similar research。 An argument can be made that the more closely an animal is related to humans； the
more like a human it shoul