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On pletion of this chapter； students should be able to：
1。 Display knowledge of the social determinants of behavior
2。 Describe Milgram’s obedience to authority experiments and ment on their
significance
3。 Explain the significance of Sherif’s Robber’s Cave experiment in terms of petition；
group dynamics； and motives for prosocial behavior
4。 Identify the significance of social psychological work on group dynamics and leadership
5。 Describe “the bystander effect” and suggest some ways to counteract it
6。 Discuss how interpersonal attraction relates to prejudice
7。 Demonstrate knowledge of the tenets of environmental psychology
8。 Discuss the concept of “stereotype threat” and explain how it relates to both prejudice
and performance by minority group members
9。 Suggest several measures that could be implemented to reduce prejudice
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 Altruism and Prosocial Behavior
A。 The Roots of Altruism
1。 Prosocial behaviors are behaviors that are carried out with the goal of
helping other people
2。 Altruism： refers to the prosocial behaviors a person carries out
without considering his or her own safety or interests
3。 Reciprocal altruism suggests that people perform altruistic behaviors
because they； in some sense； expect that others will perform altruistic
behaviors for them
B。 Motives for Prosocial Behavior
1。 Research suggests that there are four forces that prompt people to
act for the public good：
a） Altruism： Acting in response to a motive to benefit others； as
in the case of the driver who saved another person’s life
b） Egoism： Performing prosocial behaviors ultimately in one’s
own self…interest； someone might perform a helping
behavior to receive a similar favor in return or a reward
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c） Collectivism： Performing prosocial behaviors to benefit a
particular group； people might perform helping behaviors to
improve circumstances for their families； fraternities；
political parties； and so on
d） Principlism： Performing prosocial behaviors to uphold moral
principles； someone might act in a prosocial manner because
of a religious or civic principle
2。 The principle of justice suggests that each person should have an
equal probability of getting the positive or negative oute
3。 The empathy…altruism hypothesis suggests that when one feels
empathy toward another individual； those feelings evoke an
altruistic motive to provide help
C。 The Effects of the Situation on Prosocial Behavior
1。 Bystander Intervention； people’s willingness to help strangers in
distress； is sensitive to characteristics of the situation
a） Latanè and Darley’s research indicates likelihood of
intervention is dependent on number of bystanders the
participant thought were present
b） Diffusion of responsibility occurs when more than one person
who could help is present。 Others assume that someone else
will or should help
2。 Facets of emergency situations：
a） Bystanders must notice the emergency
b） Bystanders must label events as an emergency
c） Bystander must feel responsibility
II。Aggression
A。 Evolutionary Perspectives
1。 Aggression is behavior that causes psychological or physical harm to
another individual
2。 Animals may mit aggressive behaviors to ensure themselves
access to desired mates and to protect the resources that allow
themselves and their offspring to survive
3。 Lorenz argued that； unlike most other species； humans did not have
appropriately evolved mechanisms to inhibit their aggressive
impulses。 Because of this； Lorenz declared humans to be at the
pinnacle of aggression
4。 Research has contradicted Lorenz’s contention in two ways
a） Field research with a variety of animal species suggests that
many other species mit the same range of aggressive
acts as do humans
b） Humans have more inhibitory control over their use of
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aggression than Lorenz suggested
5。 Although Lorenz’s idea may be flawed； the general idea that
aggressive responses are part of human’s genetic endowment is on
firm ground
B。 Individual Differences
1。 Research has focused on brain and hormonal differences that may
mark a predisposition toward aggressive behavior
2。 High levels of serotonin may impair the brain’s ability to regulate
negative emotions and impulsive behavior
3。 Studies also suggest that some individual differences in aggression
may reflect muted stress responses
C。 Situational Influences
1。 The Frustration…Aggression Hypothesis suggests that frustration occurs
in situations in which people are prevented from obtaining their
goals； a rise in frustration leads to a greater probability of aggression
2。 Research suggests that there is a positive relationship between
temperature and aggression
3。 If you believe that someone did something intentionally to anger or
upset you； you are more likely to respond with aggression
4。 Some aggression is instrumental in that it is performed in order to
achieve an end
D。 Cultural Constraints
1。 Whether an individual will display aggression is highly constrained
by cultural values and norms
2。 Construal of self plays a role in aggressive behavior
a） Individuals in cultures that value interdependence are less
likely to respond aggressively
b） A culture of honor guides behavior in southern states because
even small disputes bee contests for reputation and
social status
3。 Norms of Aggressive Behavior
a） The availability of aggressive models in the environment；
such as that shown on television； influence aggressive
behavior； especially of children
b） Exposure to violence at home and in the munity is also a
factor in aggression
III。 Prejudice
A。 Definition
1。 No human weakness is more destructive of the dignity of the
individual and the social bonds of humanity than prejudice
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2。 Prejudice is a learned attitude toward a target object； involving
negative feelings （dislike or fear）； negative beliefs （stereotypes） that
justify that attitude； and a behavioral intention to avoid； control；
dominate； or eliminate those in the target group
3。 A false belief qualifies as prejudice when it resists change even in the
face of appropriate evidence of its falseness
B。 Origins of Prejudice
1。 Social categorization is the process by which people organize their
social environment by categorizing themselves and others into
groups
2。 People divide the world into in…groups； the groups with which they
identify as members； and out…groups； the groups with which they do
not identify
a） In…group bias is the evaluation of one’s own group as better
than others
b） People defined as part of the out…group almost instantly are
candidates for hostile feelings and unfair treatment
c） Automatic acts of prejudice develop as a function of
messages the individual has unknowingly internalized
C。 Effects of Stereotyping
1。 Stereotypes are generalizations about a group of people in which the
same characteristics are assigned to all members of the group
2。 Because stereotypes powerfully encode expectations； they contribute
to the social construction of reality。 Stereotypes influence judgments
about what exists in the environment
3。 Stereotype threatoccurs when people are placed in situations to which
negative aspects of stereotypes are relevant
4。 Research leads to the conclusion that prejudice is easy to create； but
difficult to remove
D。 Reversing Prejudice
1。 Sherif’s Robbers Cave experiment brought two groups of boys
together at a summer camp。 The experiment found：
a） Minimal groups can lead to great hostility
b） Unsuccessful attempts at hostility reduction
（i） Propaganda approach
（ii） Nonpetitive circumstances were effective。
c） Cooperative action and shared goals was successful in
reduction of hostilities
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d） The lesson of the Robbers Cave is that the elimination of
prejudice takes more than mere contact between groups。 A