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style view of depression； in which individuals believe
（correctly or not） that they have no control of future
outes of importance to them。 Learned helplessness is
marked by deficits in three areas： （1） motivational； （2）
emotional； and （3） cognitive。
F。 Gender Differences in Depression
1。 Women suffer from depression twice as often as men
2。 Research suggests differences in response style may originate in
childhood
a） When women experience sadness； they tend to think about
causes and implications of their feelings； a ruminative
response style with an obsessive focus on problems； thus
increasing depression。
b） Men attempt actively to distract themselves from negative
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feelings through physical exercise or by focusing on
something else。 Other research has also revealed a
maladaptive tendency for men to distract themselves
through use of alcohol； drugs； or violent behaviors。
G。 Suicide
1。 Patterns of suicide
a） The 8th leading cause of death in the U。 S。； 3rd among the
young； and 2nd among college students
b） Five million living Americans have attempted suicide
c） For each pleted suicide； there are 8 to 20 attempts
d） Suicide usually affects at least 6 other individuals
2。 Every 9 minutes； a teenager attempts suicide； every 90 minutes one
succeeds
3。 Suicide rates for African American youths； of both sexes； are roughly
half that for white youths。 These racial differences persist across the
life span。
4。 Gay and lesbian youth are at higher risk than are other adolescents
5。 Youth suicide is not an impulsive act。 It typically occurs as the final
stage of a period of inner turmoil and outer distress。
H。 Personality Disorders
1。 A personality disorder is a chronic； inflexible； maladaptive pattern of
perceiving； thinking； or behaving that can seriously impair the
individual’s ability to function and can cause significant distress。
Examples include：
a） Paranoid personality disorders： Show a consistent pattern of
distrust and suspiciousness about the motives of people with
whom they interact。 These individuals believe others are
trying to harm or deceive them they may find unpleasant
meanings in harmless situations； and expect their friends；
spouses； or partners to be disloyal。
b） Histrionic personality disorder： Characterized by patterns of
excessive emotionality and attention seeking。 Sufferers offer
strong opinions； with great drama； but with little evidence to
back their claims。 They react to minor occasions with
overblown emotional responses。
c） Narcissistic personality disorders： Manifests grandiose sense of
self…importance； preoccupation with fantasies of success or
power； and need for constant admiration。 These individuals
often have problems in interpersonal relationships； tending
to feel entitled to special favors without reciprocal
obligation。 They exploit others for their own purposes and
experience difficulty in realizing and experiencing how
others feel。
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d） Antisocial personality disorder： Manifested by a long…standing
pattern of irresponsible or unlawful behavior that violates
established social norms。 These individuals often do not feel
shame or remorse for their hurtful behaviors。 A violation of
social norms begins early in life； the actions are marked by
indifference to the rights of others。
I。 Dissociative Disorders
1。 Consist of a disturbance in the integration of identity； memory； or
consciousness。 Psychologists believe that in dissociative disorders
the individual escapes from his or her conflicts by giving up
consistency and continuity of the self
2。 Dissociative amnesia refers to the forgetting of important personal
experiences； caused by psychological factors in the absence of any
organic dysfunction
3。 Dissociative identity disorder； formerly known as multiple personality
disorder； is a dissociative mental disorder in which two or more
distinct personalities exist within the same individual。 May involve
chronic； severe abuse during childhood。
IV。 Schizophrenic Disorders
A。 Schizophrenic Disorders are a severe form of psychopathology in which personality
seems to disintegrate； thought and perception are distorted； and emotions are blunted
1。 Hallucinations occur often； and are assumed real
2。 Delusions； false or irrational beliefs maintained regardless of
evidence to the contrary； are mon
3。 Other manifestations
a） Incoherent language； word salad
b） Flattened or inappropriate emotions
c） Disorganized psychomotor behavior
4。 Categories of symptoms
a） Positive symptoms： hallucinations； delusions； incoherence；
and disorganized behavior are prominent during the acute
or active phases。
b） Negative symptoms： social withdrawal and flattened
emotions bee more apparent during the chronic phase。
B。 Major Types of Schizophrenia
1。 Disorganized type： Individual displays inappropriate behavior and
emotions； incoherent language。
a） Incoherent thought patterns and grossly bizarre and
disorganized behavior
b） Emotions are flattened or situationally inappropriate；
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language may be incoherent； munications with others
break down
c） If present； hallucinations and delusions lack organization
around a central theme
2。 Catatonic type： Individual displays frozen； rigid； or excitable motor
behavior
a） Major feature is disruption in motor activity
b） Also characterized by extreme negativism and resistance to
all instructions
3。 Paranoid type： Individuals suffer plex and systematized
delusions； focused around a specific theme； often delusions of
grandeur or persecution。 Symptom onset is usually later in life than
in other types of schizophrenia。 Manifestations include：
a） Delusions of persecution； in which the individual believes
he/she is being constantly spied upon； plotted against； or is
in mortal danger
b） Delusions of grandeur； in which the individual believes
he/she is an important or exalted being； such as Jesus Christ
c） Delusional jealousy； in which the individual bees
convinced （without due cause） that his or her mate is
unfaithful
4。 Undifferentiated type： The schizophrenic “grab…bag；” describing the
individual who exhibits
a） Prominent delusions； hallucinations； incoherent speech； or
grossly disorganized behavior that fit criteria of more than
one type； or of no clear type
b） Hodgepodge of symptoms fails to differentiate clearly
among the schizophrenic reactions。
5。 Residual type： Individuals have typically experienced a major episode
within the past； but are currently free of major positive symptoms。
a） Ongoing presence of the disorder is signaled by minor
positive symptoms or negative symptoms； such as flattened
affect
b） Diagnosis of residual type may indicate the individual’s
disorder is entering a stage of remission； being dormant
C。 Causes of Schizophrenia
1。 Genetic Approaches
a） Disorder tends to run in families； with increased risk if both
parents have the disorder
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b） Probability of identical twins both having the disorder is
approximately 3 times greater than is the probability for
fraternal twins
c） Diathesis…stress hypothesis suggests genetic factors place the
individual at risk； but environmental stressors must impinge
for the potential risk to be manifested
2。 Brain Function and Biological Markers
a） Magnetic resonance imaging （MRI） may be used to show
brain structures （i。e。； ventricles） that are enlarged by up to
50％ in individuals with schizophrenia
b） Imaging also reveals that individuals with schizophrenia
may have differing patterns of brain activity than those
found in normal controls
c） The dopamine hypothesis posits an association with an excess
of the neurotransmitter dopamine； at specific receptor sites
in the central nervous system （CNS）。
d） A biological marker is a “measurable indicator of disease that
may or may not be causal”； that is； it may correlate with the