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a temperature at 10；000 meters of 180 degrees centigrade； nearly twice the forecasted level。 most surprising of all was that the rockat that depth was saturated with water鈥攕omething that had not been thought possible。
because we can鈥檛 see into the earth； we have to use other techniques； which mostly involvereading waves as they travel through the interior。 we also know a little bit about the mantlefrom what are known as kimberlite pipes； where diamonds are formed。 what happens is thatdeep in the earth there is an explosion that fires； in effect； a cannonball of magma to thesurface at supersonic speeds。 it is a totally random event。 a kimberlite pipe could explode inyour backyard as you read this。 because they e up from such depths鈥攗p to 120 milesdown鈥攌imberlite pipes bring up all kinds of things not normally found on or near thesurface： a rock called peridotite； crystals of olivine； and鈥攋ust occasionally； in about one pipein a hundred鈥攄iamonds。 lots of carbon es up with kimberlite ejecta； but most isvaporized or turns to graphite。 only occasionally does a hunk of it shoot up at just the rightspeed and cool down with the necessary swiftness to bee a diamond。 it was such a pipethat made johannesburg the most productive diamond mining city in the world； but there maybe others even bigger that we don鈥檛 know about。 geologists know that somewhere in thevicinity of northeastern indiana there is evidence of a pipe or group of pipes that may be trulycolossal。 diamonds up to twenty carats or more have been found at scattered sites throughoutthe region。 but no one has ever found the source。 as john mcphee notes； it may be buriedunder glacially deposited soil； like the manson crater in iowa； or under the great lakes。
so how much do we know about what鈥檚 inside the earth？ very little。 scientists aregenerally agreed that the world beneath us is posed of four layers鈥攔ocky outer crust； amantle of hot； viscous rock； a liquid outer core； and a solid inner core。
1we know that thesurface is dominated by silicates； which are relatively light and not heavy enough to accountfor the planet鈥檚 overall density。 therefore there must be heavier stuff inside。 we know that togenerate our magnetic field somewhere in the interior there must be a concentrated belt ofmetallic elements in a liquid state。 that much is universally agreed upon。 almost everythingbeyond that鈥攈ow the layers interact； what causes them to behave in the way they do； whatthey will do at any time in the future鈥攊s a matter of at least some uncertainty； and generallyquite a lot of uncertainty。
even the one part of it we can see； the crust； is a matter of some fairly strident debate。
nearly all geology texts tell you that continental crust is three to six miles thick under theoceans； about twenty…five miles thick under the continents； and forty to sixty miles thickunder big mountain chains； but there are many puzzling variabilities within thesegeneralizations。 the crust beneath the sierra nevada mountains； for instance； is only aboutnineteen to twenty…five miles thick； and no one knows why。 by all the laws of geophysics thesierra nevadas should be sinking； as if into quicksand。 （some people think they may be。）1for those who crave a more detailed picture of the earths interior； here are the dimensions of the variouslayers； using average figures： from 0 to 40 km （25 mi） is the crust。 from 40 to 400 km （25 to 250 mi） is theupper mantle。 from 400 to 650 km （250 to 400 mi） is a transition zone between the upper and lower mantle。
from 650 to 2；700 km （400 to 1；700 mi） is the lower mantle。 from 2；700 to 2；890 km （1；700 to 1；900 mi） is the〃d〃 layer。 from 2；890 to 5；150 km （1；900 to 3；200 mi） is the outer core； and from 5；150 to 6；378 km （3；200 to3；967 mi） is the inner core。
how and when the earth got its crust are questions that divide geologists into two broadcamps鈥攖hose who think it happened abruptly early in the earth鈥檚 history and those who thinkit happened gradually and rather later。 strength of feeling runs deep on such matters。 richardarmstrong of yale proposed an early…burst theory in the 1960s； then spent the rest of hiscareer fighting those who did not agree with him。 he died of cancer in 1991； but shortlybefore his death he 鈥渓ashed out at his critics in a polemic in an australian earth science journalthat charged them with perpetuating myths；鈥潯ccording to a report inearth magazine in 1998。
鈥渉e died a bitter man；鈥潯eported a colleague。
the crust and part of the outer mantle together are called the lithosphere （from the greeklithos； meaning 鈥渟tone鈥潱弧hich in turn floats on top of a layer of softer rock called theasthenosphere （from greek words meaning 鈥渨ithout strength鈥潱弧ut such terms are neverentirely satisfactory。 to say that the lithosphere floats on top of the asthenosphere suggests adegree of easy buoyancy that isn鈥檛 quite right。 similarly it is misleading to think of the rocksas flowing in anything like the way we think of materials flowing on the surface。 the rocksare viscous； but only in the same way that glass is。 it may not look it； but all the glass on earthis flowing downward under the relentless drag of gravity。 remove a pane of really old glassfrom the window of a european cathedral and it will be noticeably thicker at the bottom thanat the top。 that is the sort of 鈥渇low鈥潯e are talking about。 the hour hand on a clock movesabout ten thousand times faster than the 鈥渇lowing鈥潯ocks of the mantle。
the movements occur not just laterally as the earth鈥檚 plates move across the surface； but upand down as well； as rocks rise and fall under the churning process known as convection。
convection as a process was first deduced by the eccentric count von rumford at the end ofthe eighteenth century。 sixty years later an english vicar named osmond fisher prescientlysuggested that the earth鈥檚 interior might well be fluid enough for the contents to move about；but that idea took a very long time to gain support。
in about 1970； when geophysicists realized just how much turmoil was going on downthere； it came as a considerable shock。 as shawna vogel put it in the book naked earth： thenew geophysics： 鈥渋t was as if scientists had spent decades figuring out the layers of theearth鈥檚 atmosphere鈥攖roposphere； stratosphere； and so forth鈥攁nd then had suddenly foundout about wind。鈥�
how deep the convection process goes has been a matter of controversy ever since。 somesay it begins four hundred miles down； others two thousand miles below us。 the problem； asdonald trefil has observed； is that 鈥渢here are two sets of data； from two different disciplines；that cannot be reconciled。鈥潯eochemists say that certain elements on earth鈥檚 surface cannothave e from the upper mantle； but must have e from deeper within the earth。
therefore the materials in the upper and lower mantle must at least occasionally mix。
seismologists insist that there is no evidence to support such a thesis。
so all that can be said is that at some slightly indeterminate point as we head toward thecenter of earth we leave the asthenosphere and plunge into pure mantle。 considering that itaccounts for 82 percent of the earth鈥檚 volume and 65 percent of its mass； the mantle doesn鈥檛attract a great deal of attention； largely because the things that interest earth scientists andgeneral readers alike happen either deeper down （as with magnetism） or nearer the surface （aswith earthquakes）。 we know that to a depth of about a hundred miles the mantle consistspredominantly of a type of rock known as peridotite； but what fills the space beyond isuncertain。 according to a nature report； it seems not to be peridotite。 more than this we donot know。
beneath the mantle are the two cores鈥攁 solid inner core and a liquid outer one。 needless tosay； our understanding of the nature of these cores is indirect； but scientists can make somereasonable assumptions。 they know that the pressures at the center of the earth aresufficiently high鈥攕omething over three million times those found at the surface鈥攖o turn anyrock there solid。 they also know from earth鈥檚 history （among other clues） that the inner coreis very good at retaining its heat。 although i