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turned away。 people knew that something big was going tohappen； though they had first to wait while a slumber…inducing speaker named john williamdraper of new york university bravely slogged his way through two hours of introductoryremarks on 鈥渢he intellectual development of europe considered with reference to the viewsof mr。 darwin。鈥�
finally； the bishop of oxford； samuel wilberforce； rose to speak。 wilberforce had beenbriefed （or so it is generally assumed） by the ardent anti…darwinian richard owen； who hadbeen a guest in his home the night before。 as nearly always with events that end in uproar；accounts vary widely on what exactly transpired。 in the most popular version； wilberforce；when properly in flow； turned to huxley with a dry smile and demanded of him whether heclaimed attachment to the apes by way of his grandmother or grandfather。 the remark wasdoubtless intended as a quip； but it came across as an icy challenge。 according to his ownaccount； huxley turned to his neighbor and whispered； 鈥渢he lord hath delivered him into myhands；鈥潯hen rose with a certain relish。
others； however； recalled a huxley trembling with fury and indignation。 at all events；huxley declared that he would rather claim kinship to an ape than to someone who used hiseminence to propound uninformed twaddle in what was supposed to be a serious scientificforum。 such a riposte was a scandalous impertinence； as well as an insult to wilberforce鈥檚office； and the proceedings instantly collapsed in tumult。 a lady brewster fainted。 robertfitzroy； darwin鈥檚 panion on the beagle twenty…five years before； wandered through thehall with a bible held aloft； shouting； 鈥渢he book； the book。鈥潯。╤e was at the conference topresent a paper on storms in his capacity as head of the newly created meteorologicaldepartment。） interestingly； each side afterward claimed to have routed the other。
darwin did eventually make his belief in our kinship with the apes explicit in the descentof man in 1871。 the conclusion was a bold one since nothing in the fossil record supportedsuch a notion。 the only known early human remains of that time were the famous neandertalbones from germany and a few uncertain fragments of jawbones； and many respectedauthorities refused to believe even in their antiquity。 the descent of man was altogether amore controversial book； but by the time of its appearance the world had grown less excitableand its arguments caused much less of a stir。
for the most part； however； darwin passed his twilight years with other projects； most ofwhich touched only tangentially on questions of natural selection。 he spent amazingly longperiods picking through bird droppings； scrutinizing the contents in an attempt to understandhow seeds spread between continents； and spent years more studying the behavior of worms。
one of his experiments was to play the piano to them； not to amuse them but to study theeffects on them of sound and vibration。 he was the first to realize how vitally importantworms are to soil fertility。 鈥渋t may be doubted whether there are many other animals whichhave played so important a part in the history of the world；鈥潯e wrote in his masterwork on thesubject； the formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms （1881）； which wasactually more popular thanon the origin of species had ever been。 among his other bookswere on the various contrivances by which british and foreign orchids are fertilised byinsects （1862）； expressions of the emotions in man and animals （1872）； which sold almost5；300 copies on its first day； the effects of cross and self fertilization in the vegetablekingdom （1876）鈥攁 subject that came improbably close to mendel鈥檚 own work； withoutattaining anything like the same insights鈥攁nd his last book； the power of movement inplants。 finally； but not least； he devoted much effort to studying the consequences ofinbreeding鈥攁 matter of private interest to him。 having married his own cousin； darwinglumly suspected that certain physical and mental frailties among his children arose from alack of diversity in his family tree。
darwin was often honored in his lifetime； but never for on the origin of species ordescentof man。 when the royal society bestowed on him the prestigious copley medal it was for hisgeology； zoology； and botany； not evolutionary theories； and the linnaean society wassimilarly pleased to honor darwin without embracing his radical notions。 he was neverknighted； though he was buried in westminster abbey鈥攏ext to newton。 he died at down inapril 1882。 mendel died two years later。
darwin鈥檚 theory didn鈥檛 really gain widespread acceptance until the 1930s and 1940s； withthe advance of a refined theory called； with a certain hauteur； the modern synthesis；bining darwin鈥檚 ideas with those of mendel and others。 for mendel； appreciation wasalso posthumous； though it came somewhat sooner。 in 1900； three scientists workingseparately in europe rediscovered mendel鈥檚 work more or less simultaneously。 it was onlybecause one of them； a dutchman named hugo de vries； seemed set to claim mendel鈥檚insights as his own that a rival made it noisily clear that the credit really lay with the forgottenmonk。
the world was almost ready； but not quite； to begin to understand how we got here鈥攈owwe made each other。 it is fairly amazing to reflect that at the beginning of the twentiethcentury； and for some years beyond； the best scientific minds in the world couldn鈥檛 actuallytell you where babies came from。
and these； you may recall； were men who thought science was nearly at an end。
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26 THE STUFF OF LIFE
灏忥伎璇磘…x…t锛垮ぉ/鍫�
if your two parents hadn鈥檛 bonded just when they did鈥攑ossibly to the second； possiblyto the nanosecond鈥攜ou wouldn鈥檛 be here。 and if their parents hadn鈥檛 bonded in a preciselytimely manner； you wouldn鈥檛 be here either。 and if their parents hadn鈥檛 done likewise； andtheir parents before them； and so on； obviously and indefinitely； you wouldn鈥檛 be here。
push backwards through time and these ancestral debts begin to add up。 go back just eightgenerations to about the time that charles darwin and abraham lincoln were born； andalready there are over 250 people on whose timely couplings your existence depends。
continue further； to the time of shakespeare and the mayflower pilgrims； and you have nofewer than 16；384 ancestors earnestly exchanging genetic material in a way that would；eventually and miraculously； result in you。
at twenty generations ago； the number of people procreating on your behalf has risen to1；048；576。 five generations before that； and there are no fewer than 33；554；432 men andwomen on whose devoted couplings your existence depends。 by thirty generations ago； yourtotal number of forebears鈥攔emember； these aren鈥檛 cousins and aunts and other incidentalrelatives； but only parents and parents of parents in a line leading ineluctably to you鈥攊s overone billion （1；073；741；824； to be precise）。 if you go back sixty…four generations； to the time ofthe romans； the number of people on whose cooperative efforts your eventual existencedepends has risen to approximately 1；000；000；000；000；000；000； which is several thousandtimes the total number of people who have ever lived。
clearly something has gone wrong with our math here。 the answer； it may interest you tolearn； is that your line is not pure。 you couldn鈥檛 be here without a little incest鈥攁ctually quitea lot of incest鈥攁lbeit at a genetically discreet remove。 with so many millions of ancestors inyour background； there will have been many occasions when a relative from your mother鈥檚side of the family procreated with some distant cousin from your father鈥檚 side of the ledger。 infact； if you are in a partnership now with someone from your own race and country； thechances are excellent that you are at some level related。 indeed； if you look around you on abus or in a park or caf茅 or any crowded place； most of the people you see are very probablyrelatives。 when someone boasts to you that he is descended from william the conqueror orthe mayflower pilgrims； you should answer at once： 鈥渕e； too！鈥潯n the most literal andfundamental sense we are all family。
we are als